Book Review of the Bottom Billion Why the Poorest Countries Are Failing and What Can Be Done About It by Paul Collier

Introduction Going by the scholarly reviews that have been done on the book The Bottom Billion by Paul Collier and the numerous praiseworthy comments that have made on it; this book is undoubtedly a geographically-oriented economic masterpiece worth being given a serious reading.Advertising We will write a custom book review sample on Book Review of the Bottom Billion: Why the Poorest Countries Are Failing and What Can Be Done About It by Paul Collier specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More According to Wolf (2007) of the venerated Financial Times, this book is indeed â€Å"a splendid book† which sheds light on the dark moral challenges that often impede the bottom billion countries from actualizing their economic goals. Stewart (2007) of the Guardian calls it an â€Å"important book† and rallies behind Collier who, in the book, calls for well-performing countries—especially those positioned in the western geographi cal hemisphere of the world—to use their resources in areas like technology to help uplifting the suffering countries. Stewart’s sentiments are echoed by Quinn (2008) who says that the book is a well written masterpiece talking of â€Å"a paradigm shift away from poverty alleviation as a goal of development†. All these strong opinions of the book, from authoritative sources duly qualify the book as an epitome of invaluable information on the nature of economies today (Reinert, 2011). Of course, like many other books, there have been a few scholars who have opined that some places in the book were a bit too obvious (like the nature of poverty in Africa) or exaggerated (like the role of western governments in helping in poverty alleviation). However, in one way or another, even these critics have confessed that, generally speaking, the book is an epitome of resourceful information. It is on the basis of such scholarly arguments that the expansive review, detailed below, is done. Book Summary Who is the author? As glimpsed in the introduction, the Bottom Billion was written by Paul Collier. According to the Centre for the Study of African economies (2010), Paul Collier is an astute Professor of Economics, a revered director for the Centre for the Study of African economies at Oxford University and a widely published author whose several books and articles numerous scholarly genres have received a good number of honorary accolades.Advertising Looking for book review on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More For example, in 1988, he was prized with the Edgar Graham Book Prize for his worthwhile writings in the book Labour and poverty in rural Tanzania: Ujamaa and rural development in the United Republic of Tanzania. In 2008, the Bottom Billion deservedly â€Å"won the Lionel Gelber, Arthur Ross and Corine prizes† typifying how good the book was written (Centre for the Study of African economies, 2010). Even more importantly, between 1998 and 2003, he served as a director of the development research group of the World Bank where he was not only able to conduct many high-profile researches on the geographical nature of economic power across the world but he also accessed several factual statistics and proofs of poverty in the world. As will be explicatively detailed later, working in the World Bank greatly helped in getting valuable information which he later used to validate and support his arguments in the Bottom Billion. As of today, Paul Collier continues to serve his aforementioned roles while he occasionally writes for magazines and newspapers like the Independent, the New York Times, the Financial Times, the Washington Post and the Washington Journal. What is the book about? Essentially, the book talks about why impoverished countries continue to dwindle down in abject poverty despite the international aid and support that they get from wel l-off countries (Batabyal, 2008, p.507-510). In the book, Collier asserts that there is a continued widening gap between the rich and the poor—with a majority of countries being on the poor side of the equation. More specifically, Collier (2007, p.3-15) asserts that whereas most of 5 billion people in the developing world continue to get richer; there is another group of people (especially from Africa and Central Asia) who continually get poorer. This presents the need for fitting solutions to be found for these impoverished countries whose bad economic situation is worsening. In a large section of the book, Collier delves into talking about the root-causes of the problems being faced by these impoverished states. Once a firm background is laid on this issue, Collier then goes ahead and gives an expansive analysis of the effects of the eminent gap widening between the rich and the poor.Advertising We will write a custom book review sample on Book Review of the Bottom Bil lion: Why the Poorest Countries Are Failing and What Can Be Done About It by Paul Collier specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Towards the ending sections of the book, Collier recommends solutions—basing them on his researches as well as studies done by other scholars—and gives a limelight of what can be expected in the future (Da Cruz, 2009, p.201-204). So in summary, it can be said that Collier offers the cause, effects and solutions of people in impoverished countries—which makes his book well-balanced in terms of his content (Mueller, 2007, p.542-546). More importantly, he sends a distress signal to other scholars calling for help in poverty alleviation. As an answer to this call, a good number of scholars have commendably been able to follow in the footsteps of Collier by spotlighting other areas facing similar problems while intermittently offering solutions. Where does the book â€Å"fit† in literature? To a great extent, this book offered a lot of new insightful information into the nature of global poverty—highlighting trends and patterns in various geographical areas. However, taking a closer look at its content, one is bound to realize that the book offers some form of continuity to his previous works—which talked on global poverty and the economic situation in the world. O’Brien (2007) explicates this by saying that Collier’s ideas in this book relies greatly on previous researches that he did with fellow macroeconomic scholars like Anke Hoeffler. This, probably, is the reason why Collier’s ideas on issues like international conflicts, financial aids and the need for help in fragile states, largely, cite previous works done by the likes of Hoeffler (Stewart, 2007). Additionally, it is worth noting that, other than his close associates; the book also borrows heavily from past researchers and studies conducted by other macroeconomists. This is, especially, typified when Collier gives detailed narratives of past economic regimes witnessed in the 1960s and 1970s and the role that such regimes played in paving the way for the current state of affairs. For example, Collier (2007, p.10-30), details how factors like civil wars, colonization, globalization and technological advancements led to shifts in global power.Advertising Looking for book review on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More As a result of such shifts, some countries—especially those in the west who were able to bountifully reap from events like colonization—found themselves in spheres of influence which have, to date, been used to exert control, influence and, occasionally, help to the rather powerless countries (Lipton, 2008, 750-760). Moreover, the book gives a detailed analysis of the present nature of economic events. To this regard, events like the 9/11 bombing is USA and the global impact it had, is also given. Additionally, the current eminence of global catastrophes like floods, diseases and droughts has also been given by Collier to explain the reasons behind the suffering of the bottom billion. Notably, around 2007 when the book was written, there was a looming danger of economic meltdown—which, as we now know, happened in 2008 in form of a global economic crisis. In the book, warnings of an economic down-surge happening, if urgent measures were not taken by the concerned parties, was blatantly give by Collier. It is, therefore, say to say that the book was not only presented valid and candid ideas but it was also written at a perfect time when clear-cut ways of reducing poverty and global economic solutions were direly needed (Quinn, 2008). Once he has detailed the current nature of events, Collier gives a rather prophetic insight of what might happen in the future depending on the positive or negative actions taken as an answer to the past and present nature of economic events across the world (O’Brien, 2007). It therefore goes without saying that, topping the fact that the book offers new economic insights; it admittedly plays a huge role in facilitating literary continuity. In other words, the book offers a connection between the nature of past, present and future nature of economic and geographic events that have shaped poverty across the world. In doing so, he has connected facts, opinions, arguments, notions and ideas from various scho lars—which, in effect, has also facilitated scholarly continuity. In a nutshell, the book is indeed a literary masterpiece—going by the way the author has fittingly joined various works of art to present his timely message to the world. The many follow-up literary works to support Collier’s ideas as well as the accolades the book has won, since it was written, attest to the book’s invaluable nature. What are the main arguments? In essence, several arguments with regards to the nature of poverty—especially in impoverished countries like New Guinea, East Timor and Solomon Islands—have been variably presented in the book. However, in summary, the plight of the bottom billon has been presented in four major categories, commonly termed by Collier as â€Å"traps.† These four traps are succinctly detailed below. Firstly, we have the conflict trap. Here, Collier (2007) states that the prevalence of global conflicts civil wars, coups and inter national acts of terrorism—like the 9/11 bombings—tend to incur large economic costs (p.35-40). For example, in the book, civil wars are estimated to average at a cost of $64 billion each. Resultantly, countries facing such wars are greatly affected economically. On the other hand, countries which openly or secretly support such wars by providing things like ammunition end up benefiting immensely at the expense of their counterparts. Additionally, such conflicts tend to take a long a long time and even after the war; more time is taken to resuscitate the countries to their initial economic position. This makes it very difficult for progress to be sustained—particularly in war-prone countries that go to war easily (Collier, 2007, p.37). A good example here is the Middle East. Secondly, we have the natural resource trap. On normal occasions, countries that lack natural resources are usually said to be more likely to face poverty. Of course this is true based on ex amples of countries in Africa which are not able to do much in alleviating their poverty levels (Collier, 2007, p.40-45). However, Collier presents an intriguingly paradoxical view on the presence of natural resources in a country. According to him, countries that are richly endowed with natural resources tend to find themselves in a worse economic trap than their counterparts. Collier (2007, p.38-53) attributes this paradox on the following reasons: The utilization of useful natural resources can easily lead to a situation whereby a country’s industries become less competitive based on currency valuation that might arise from revenue generated from the resource. The fight for having a lion’s share of the resources can easily lead to conflicts. In democratic countries, the availability of natural resources simply means that governments should not tax its citizen on products and services got from these resources. As a result, citizens are less likely to be keen on dema nding for important checks-and-balance procedures like accountability thus encouraging ills like corruption and misuse of resources—which are recipes for disasters. Thirdly, we have the landlocked with bad neighbors trap. According to Collier (2007, p.53-56), countries that face high poverty levels yet have well-off neighbors can easily find ways of surviving through their neighbors by borrowing or even learning from them. However, for countries that are poor and have poor neighbors, it becomes utterly impossible for any economic progress to take place since they cannot connect with the rest of the world or even learn since their neighbors are just like them. In addition, these poor landlocked countries tend not to have sufficient infrastructure that can help them market the little that they have to the rest of the world. This delinks them from getting any form of help from others thus further paralyzing the chances of progress. Several poor countries in Africa are alleged t o be victims of this trap. Fourthly, and lastly, we have the trap of bad governance in small countries. Principally, bad governance is a factor that affects both small and large countries. However, in small countries, the effect, according to Collier (2007, p.64-78), is bound to worse since the cost of living is normally low which scares-off potential investors. In effect, only the typical labor-intensive work—which is usually less paying—continues to go on while their â€Å"economic masters† enjoy spoils of their hard work. Notably, a large portion of the book explains the intricacies of these four traps detailing their effects and solutions. A critical analysis of these major arguments—particularly with regards to the proposed solutions and what other critics say about them—is given in the section below. Critical Analysis Argumentative and literary Critique of the Book In doing a critical analysis of this book, it is worth to preliminarily note t hat, in spite of stating that there 58 countries that constitute the bottom billion, Collier does not list them. According to him, this name calling and branding might offend the wrong people thus lead to unnecessary conflicts and wars—which are not the intentions of the book (Collier, 2007, p.7). Nevertheless, throughout the book, several countries are used to exemplify the nature of the bottom billion and the economic difficulties they face in their war against poverty. Remarkably, avoiding the giving of a list is duly commendable based on the much tension that was existent at the time the book was written. Any small issue like listing these countries could have easily led to conflict thus worsening the already bad situation at that time. Again, unlike most scholars who just point out problems and stop at that; Collier goes the extra mile and offers applicable recommendations and solutions to the aforementioned traps. For example, in solving the conflict trap, he points out stringent punitive measures should be put in place to punish those who fuel the occurrence of conflicts like civil wars. Additionally, he outlines the crucial role played by some media houses in such conflicts and recommends that, objective journalism should be encouraged so as to guide these media houses in the right path while concomitantly curbing them from overstepping their boundaries (Da Cruz, 2009, p.201-204). With regards to natural resource trap, Collier recommends that the practice of sharing resources should be encouraged across the world. In essence, at no point in time can one country can have everything. This lack, which is normal, can be solved by interrelations by various countries or even across various regions. The forming of the G-8, is given as a good example of positive influence that can be effected from interoperating with others and sharing resources (O’Brien, 2007). Regarding the trap of being landlocked with bad neighbors, the following solutions ar e given: Improvement of economic policies across regions starting from the grassroots of the society where abject poverty is normally eminent Facilitating the construction of proper infrastructure (especially in terms of transport and communication) so as to ease the flow of valuable information and economic resources across region, to be specific, and the world, at large Instituting economic regulations in terms of unchecked geographical endeavors like migration which, if not regulated can easily lead to increased poverty. Finally, with regards to bad governance in small countries, Collier suggests that changes should be primarily made in the governance so as to offer proper guidance to the people. Once this is done, the economic outlook of such countries can be changed through increased transparency standards being instituted, more governmental checks and balances being put in place, liaising with the rest of the world in the bid to get help in form of aids or even better educat ion that can help them develop on their own. Also, collier stresses that the mentality of overdependence on aids from well-off countries should be replaced with a culture that nurtures and encourages the growth of hard work. This way, such countries are able to survive on their own during crisis or in case their donors withdraw their support (Reinert, 2011). These solutions and recommendations presented have been able to greatly help in facilitating economic progress across the world while concurrently alleviating poverty. The GDP of some countries that had been reported as languishing in abject poverty have been able to, reportedly, improve. The wake-up call issued in the book, even to well-performing countries that had started being complacent of their economic strength, has also been able to yield fruits with positive competition being witnessed even in these well-off countries in their bid to perform better (Reinert, 2011). Nevertheless, as earlier mentioned, a good number of cr iticisms have been issued concerning this book. Examples of such criticisms include the following. According to Lipton (2008, 750-760), the book does not have bibliography, as professionally written books should. Instead, it has an incomprehensive list of research which does not clearly indicate sources of information and research detailed in the book. This makes it difficult for adequate follow-up to be done on the book’s contents. Again, the failure of clearly listing the bottom billion, as her later did in his book Wars, Guns and Votes once this had been criticized, is considered as cowardice. If he really wanted to prove his facts and nail his ideas appropriately, Lipton (2008, p.750-760) says that he should have given the bottom billion list. Finally, Collier’s criterion for defining the bottom billion based on their economic stagnation is considered by Lipton (2008, p.750-760) as not being utterly appropriate. In supporting his critique, Lipton says that even tho ugh the countries cited as the bottom billion did, actually, stagnate, a good number of them had respectable â€Å"annual GDP-per-head growth â€Å" between 1975 and 2005. Examples of countries given by Lipton include Equatorial Guinea, Laos, Myanmar, Uganda and Mozambique. Conclusion From the arguments presented herein, it is undeniably clear that the Bottom Billion avails crucial information that was not only relevant in 2007 when it was written but is even vital in solving some of the economic problems being faced today (Reinert, 2011). However, in the process of expressing the ideas in the book, some issues might have been overstated or overlooked thus leading to its criticism. Geographically, several crucial patterns, trends and mannerisms were noted in the book. In solving the nature of poverty in the book, Collier emphasized that apt geographical strategies and initiatives should be put in motion (Mueller, 2007, p.542-546). Commendably, a good number of such strategies are currently underway. Examples here include the realignment of poor landlocked countries such that they are able to interact with those that are developed, the formation of joint regional corporations or even the emphatic agenda placed to maximize the use of natural resources in certain geographical set-ups to help alleviate poverty (O’Brien, 2007). Such initiatives underscore the value of geography in the world. More studies of this kind should, thus, be conducted to not only help in poverty alleviation but also solve the many other problems being faced in the world today. References Batabyal, A. A. (2008). Why the poorest countries are falling and what can be done about it. Journal of Agricultural Environmental Ethics, 21 (5), 507-510. Center for the Study of African Economies. Professor Paul Collier. Web. Collier, P. (2007). The bottom billion: why the poorest countries are failing and what can be done about it. New York: Oxford University Press. Da Cruz, J. (2009). The bot tom billion. Journal of Third World Studies, 26 (1), 201-204. Lipton, M. (2008). Review article: bottom billion: countries or people? The Journal of Development Studies, 44 (5), 750-60 Mueller, S. (2007). The bottom billion. The International Journal of African Historical Studies, 40 (3), 542-546. O’Brien, T. (2007). The bottom billion: why the poorest countries are failing and what can be done about it: some insights for the Pacific? Web. Quinn, M. (2008). â€Å"The bottom billion: why the poorest countries are failing and what can be done about it† by Paul Collier.  Web. Reinert, E. S. (2011). The bottom billion: why the poorest countries are failing and what can be done about it.  Web. Stewart, H. (2007). Action will speak louder than words. Web. Wolf, M. (2007). How the bottom billion are trapped.  Web. This book review on Book Review of the Bottom Billion: Why the Poorest Countries Are Failing and What Can Be Done About It by Paul Collier was written and submitted by user Eleanor Freeman to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

Free Essays on A Brief History Of Feminism

A Brief History of Feminism Feminism is difficult to define because every woman views feminism differently. â€Å"Generally speaking, feminism is a political, social, and cultural stance that is pro-woman† (Warhol, 1995). Feminists believe, among other things, in equal rights, opportunities and paychecks for men and women. Women are just as worthy and valuable as men and feminists want the world to know it. Before the 1920’s, women had virtually no rights. They could not vote, they could not own property and they were treated with little or no respect. Women were expected to stay at home and take care of their husbands and children. If a woman did choose to work outside of her home, there were few jobs to choose from. Most women worked as clerks, nurses, schoolteachers and other traditionally female occupations. Women began to grow very frustrated and they realized that something had to change. â€Å"Historically speaking, feminism has been associated in the United States with the struggle for women’s political enfranchisement† (Warhol, 1995). The first wave of feminism in the United States occurred in the 1920’s hen women fought for the right to vote. A proposed constitutional amendment was introduced in every session of Congress form 1878 to 1919, but was defeated each time. Finally, in 1920, the Nineteenth Amendment was added to the Constitution giving women equal pay for equal work, and the Civil Rights Act of 1964 prohibited job discrimination on the basis of gender. The second wave of feminism arose in the 1960’s with the sexual revolution. This wave of feminism is sometimes referred to as Women’s Liberation. This time the movement involved issues of reproductive rights (such as birth control and abortion) as well as equality in the workplace and female representation in the government. Many believe that this wave of feminism is still in place today. To... Free Essays on A Brief History Of Feminism Free Essays on A Brief History Of Feminism A Brief History of Feminism Feminism is difficult to define because every woman views feminism differently. â€Å"Generally speaking, feminism is a political, social, and cultural stance that is pro-woman† (Warhol, 1995). Feminists believe, among other things, in equal rights, opportunities and paychecks for men and women. Women are just as worthy and valuable as men and feminists want the world to know it. Before the 1920’s, women had virtually no rights. They could not vote, they could not own property and they were treated with little or no respect. Women were expected to stay at home and take care of their husbands and children. If a woman did choose to work outside of her home, there were few jobs to choose from. Most women worked as clerks, nurses, schoolteachers and other traditionally female occupations. Women began to grow very frustrated and they realized that something had to change. â€Å"Historically speaking, feminism has been associated in the United States with the struggle for women’s political enfranchisement† (Warhol, 1995). The first wave of feminism in the United States occurred in the 1920’s hen women fought for the right to vote. A proposed constitutional amendment was introduced in every session of Congress form 1878 to 1919, but was defeated each time. Finally, in 1920, the Nineteenth Amendment was added to the Constitution giving women equal pay for equal work, and the Civil Rights Act of 1964 prohibited job discrimination on the basis of gender. The second wave of feminism arose in the 1960’s with the sexual revolution. This wave of feminism is sometimes referred to as Women’s Liberation. This time the movement involved issues of reproductive rights (such as birth control and abortion) as well as equality in the workplace and female representation in the government. Many believe that this wave of feminism is still in place today. To...

History Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 69

History - Essay Example The 1960s movement culture had also force a reconsideration of foreign policy concerning defense of democracy and human rights across countries because of liberals seemed to be blind to human rights abuses and dangers of the Soviet military power. To provide evidence that the 1960s movement had led to the development of neo-conservatism politics and worldwide reconsideration of foreign policy, Boyer (2001) stated that America’s prime interest was mainly commerce and missionary work; however, the growth of the Soviet forces had made America a buffer state which balance great power and ambitions and defend only against external threats (283). America were blind to human abuses as they were linked to the British while supporting the Jews. America believed that containment of Soviet threat is necessary and this led the nationalist or neo-conservative movement to emerge. This movement saw that while America promote different social programs, they are still blind to worldwide human rights abuses because of containment of Soviet threat. Based on the evidences, I assumed that the Soviet force was truly terrifying; if not, why would America will only aim towards containment despite seeing worldwide human rights abuses? I learned that to preserve foreign relations, establishing an ally would help a lot. However, we must see to it that the draft of foreign relations policy will not only support social welfare and defense but will also strengthen democracy and protect human rights across the globe. This must promote equality among all

Analysis Of The Film Farewell My Concubine Essay

Analysis Of The Film Farewell My Concubine - Essay Example The film starts by illustrating how two men, Xiaolou and Dieyi started their professional careers in â€Å"Peking Opera†. The two men used to perform as in masculine and feminine roles. Xiahou's appeared as a man on stage while Dieyi as the woman. The flashback in the film from the stage performance to the Warlords’ era reflects how the two men met and spent the hardships of the time together (Metalluk 2004, IMDb 2011). This melodramatic film portrays the shaping of gender identity under the barriers imposed by the culture and traditions. Many writers and commentators have commented their point of view on the identity performance and development in Farewell My Concubine; however, they failed to comment on the cross-cultural impact and attraction of the film (Cheshire 1992, Tiessier 1993). Moreover, the writers have focused to the anecdotal extent only while explaining the differences related culture, society and sex. Farewell My Concubine has a significant cultural iden tity attached to it. The story of the film covers the Chinese era from 1927 to 1977, which is a combination of warlords’ domination era, invading of Japanese Empire and the revolution in China in terms of culture. The film promotes and develops a particular cultural identity (Bergeson 1997). Apart from this, the film also presents a special kind of masculine feature which is presented as a male-dominated by extreme feminine characteristics. This identity is presented in the role played by Leslie Cheung as â€Å"Dieyi† which is the main character of the film; Concubine. Along with a depressing story of homosexual affection related to identities of masculinity and femininity, the film also presents a tensed situation with respect to the feminine desires as expressed by Dieyi. The film portrays an interesting and complex masculine identity which offers its viewers to observe the differentiating line between masculinity and femininity. Chinese cultural norms do not allow f emales to take part in Opera and henceforth, Dieyi being a man is forced to play the role of a woman along with Xiaolou. This role cum gender conflict is resolved as Dieyi decides to submit his wills and wishes for what is being demanded of him. After adopting the feminine gender on stage, Dieyi finds that he no more wants his masculinity back and learns to admit that â€Å"I am by nature a girl.† Performing along with his counterpart Xiaolou, the friendship relationship between the two turns into a romantic relationship in which Dieyi is seen to be more involved (Bergeson 1997, Metalluk 2004). Concubine’s identity performance is a fascinating seducing role apart from the original character of Dieyi. After Dieyi, the other Concubine which is revealed is in the form of Xiao Si, who is Dieyi’s son. The way in which the film presents femininity through the â€Å"mask of femininity†, allows the emotions of the characters to go beyond their respective roles. T he â€Å"mask of femininity† is in fact presented as incarnating the sexual desire. Beyond the construction of femininity on the social frame of reference, the film’s masking technique displays how femininity is desired more when it is subject to an artificial image.

Imperialism and Colonization Essay Example for Free

Imperialism and Colonization Essay Colonization and imperialism are inherently associated with an economic model that is meant to boost the economy of the colonizing power (herein referred to as benefactor state) by providing target market for manufactured goods and source of raw materials. During the twentieth century most colonies gained independence or autonomy resulting in a disruption of the economic model associated with colonization and imperialism. A current trend is globalization which necessitates a complete reversal of the economic role of states. The role has changed from serving as a market for the benefactor state to manufacturing products using inexpensive labor that are then sold back to the benefactor state. Many states (particularly in Africa) have not been able to adjust to this change and have, thus, been caught between colonization and globalization without strong economic ties to other nations. To minimize conflict within a state and between states, the respective nations must have ties that are strong enough to transcend national boundaries. This is evident when examining global trends such as colonization and globalization which tend to focus nations that would normally be at odds on a common goal. In the case of colonization, natives of occupied territories are inclined to unite against the occupying power. A current trend towards globalization has forced nations to unite because of an increased economic dependence between states. The claim (albeit untrue) that there has never been a war between two countries having McDonalds underscores the importance of economic ties that can transcend national boundaries. A History of Imperialism and Colonization During the height of colonialism, Britain controlled over a quarter of the land and one third of the population. Combined, Britain and eight other European countries controlled approximately 84% of the earth’s surface. (Conklin: 1) What factors allowed Europeans to exert such a strong influence on other parts of the world? More importantly, what were the motivations for subjugating the rest of the world that have made such a profound impact even in the modern world? J. A. Hobson describes the driving force behind olonization as â€Å"the investor who cannot find at home the profitable use he seeks for his capital, and insists that his Government should help him to profitable and secure investments abroad. † (Hobson: 15) On the practical side of colonization, armies are needed and colonization can’t occur until an industrial revolution begins. Industrialization requires cheap labor, a navy, a target market to buy surplus p roducts and raw materials. Without a large enough target audience for selling goods, the industrial revolution would have been stymied and Britain’s economy and industry could not have advanced as rapidly. Essentially, raw materials are shipped out of colonies to the colonizing country, manufactured into a finished product using cheap labor and then sold back to the colonies at profit. (Kollenbroich) Undoubtedly, there are other factors that motivated European powers to colonize; Christianity, national pride and civilizing those perceived as savages to name some. However, there is no denying that most colonies became economically dependent on the colonizing country. This implies that economic reasons, regardless of other motivating factors for colonization, were a driving force in colonization. In fact, the factors such as Christianity, national pride and the mission to civilize would often go hand in hand with the economic motivation and serve to conceal the economic reasons from the general public. (Kollenbroich) M. K. Ghandi agrees with that statement, â€Å"England is a nation of shopkeepers,† (attributed to Napoleon) and goes on to describe how the British, â€Å"hold whatever dominions they have for the sake of their commerce. † (Ghandi: 25) Continuing on the same note, Ghandi explains that the British view the world as a vast market for their goods. According to Ghandi, the British didn’t conquer India per se; rather the acceptance of British commerce, lifestyle and law allowed the British to govern India. For this very reason, Ghandi promotes a lifestyle lacking in machinery. â€Å"What did India do before these articles were introduced? Precisely the same should be done today. † (Ghandi 28-29) In Ghandi’s opinion, removing economic ties to Britain and rest of Europe, India would eventually attain sovereignty. Clearly, the economy plays a vital role in colonization and is a strong motivation by providing raw materials and markets to sell finished goods. The question that begs to be asked is: How were Europeans able to convince or force other parts of the world to accept colonization? The answer has everything to do with image. If natives didn’t believe that the Europeans were superior, revolts would have been much more widespread. In turn, European militaries would have been spread too thin and outnumbered. The key to preventing this lies in creating the illusion for natives that the Europeans are superior in every way and resistance is futile. The style of rule is as important as the fact the Europeans are in control of the colony. Typically the French would use a divide and conquer strategy. They would bring in French administrators and subject the natives to French culture. This was effective because the French often grouped tribes or groups of natives that didn’t get along. Instead of fighting the French, the natives would fight amongst themselves. On the other hand, the British would preserve parts of the local system and choose natives leaders. This was effective for the British because it gave the natives the illusion of a certain level of autonomy while the British remained in control. Kollenbroich) The socio-economic model in most colonies was noticeably lacking a middle class. On one hand there are the natives who are often dirt poor by European standards and on the other hand there are the business and elite classes that are continually sucking profit out of the colonies. This is somewhat true of even Europe because of industrialization which left a large lower class working in the factories fo r minimal wages. The Trend of Globalization The push towards a more global economy has several important consequences. Many states that were once colonizing powers have seen their role shift to that of economic powerhouses with global cities that serve as command and control centers for the economy. (Sassen, 4) In the wake of globalization, an increasing number of firms have centralized their business presence in the downtown areas of global cities and placed numerous factories in foreign states to take advantage of lower labor prices. The placement or acquisition of factories in other states is known as foreign direct investment (FDI). The five major exporters of capital (United States, United Kingdom, Japan, France and Germany) account for 70 percent of FDI (Sassen 11). According to Sassen, â€Å"the growth in FDI has been embedded in the internationalization of production of goods and services. † (Sassen: 10) This is readily evident when considering the number of factories being built in Latin American and Southeast Asian. The semiconductor explosion coupled with other industries choosing to locate in Asia has led to an â€Å"emergence of Southeast Asia as a crucial transnational space for production. (Sassen: 11) Prominent American companies have increasingly moved the manufacturing of products offshore to take advantage of more lax labor laws and significantly lower wages. The transition from colonization to globalization has seen the role of foreign countries move from buying products to creating products cheaply. The economics of intervention has played a more dominant role in foreign policy and will continue to do so in the future. For decades the United States and Soviet Union struggled to see capitalism and communism spread, respectively. The struggle played out both economically and militarily in many countries throughout the world and is important because more often than not decolonized countries would be in need of economic and sometimes military intervention. More recently, the United States and other countries have faced decisions about whether to intervene in situations such as Somalia and other African states. Interventions such as these are often viewed by the much of the public as too little too late and this can be attributed, at least in part, to a lack of economic interest in the conflict. In fact, intervention costs millions and sometimes billions of dollars which, in many politicians’ eyes, is not justified. To make matters worse, politicians are very careful about labeling conflicts as massacres or genocide because as soon as a conflict is labeled as such, it ethically requires intervention. What happens then to a state caught between colonization and globalization that has little or no economical tie to the global economy? If the conflict receives enough attention on the world stage and there is enough bloodshed, then there is a good chance that a peacekeeping force will intervene. However, the chance of intervention in a conflict with little or no bloodshed is much slimmer and may never materialize. Case Study: Zimbabwe According to the International Crisis Group, â€Å"Zimbabwe’s economy is hemorrhaging. † (Zimbabwe: 5) Zimbabwe’s economy has shrunk approximately 25 percent since 1998, inflation is more than 228% percent (Zimbabwe: CIA) and unemployment is higher than 60 percent. Foreign direct investment (FDI) has decreased from 436 million USD in 1998 to 4. 5 million USD. The FDI alone is indicative of an ever increasing gap between today’s global economy and the economy of Zimbabwe. Any economic ties that Zimbabwe has with the rest of the world are slowly wasting away with a decrease in gold production and decreased foreign aid. In fact, reducing hours and production volume is now the norm and has led to a scarcity of basic commodities within the country. To make a poor situation even worse, the government of Zimbabwe has been directing farm seizures that have led to 95 percent of large scale farmers either stopping operations or being severely disrupted. The food production has declined by 40 percent and prompted a United Nations (UN) report that warns of the potential of famine. If predictions hold true, Zimbabwe’s harvests will not be enough to feed the entire population Zimbabwe will be forced to import food. The government has gone as far as deploying army and police units to deal with riots, should they break out. (Zimbabwe) The ruling ZANU-PF party has been systematically eliminating opposition from the Movement for Democratic Change (MDC). The ZANU-PF has been accused of distributing food to party members rather than equally which means that even children of MDC supporters have food withheld. ZANU-PF supporters, civil servants and traditional leaders are blocking MDC supporters from acquiring maize †¦ It is clear that some schemes have been discriminatory for months without the donor being aware. (Zimbabwe: 7) Thus far, the rest of the world has been passive about the happenings in Zimbabwe. In part, this can be attributed to the need to intervene if a country or countries declare a humanitarian crisis in Zimbabwe. As noted earlier the FDI has dramatically declined resulting in essentially no economic ties between Zimbabwe and the rest of the world. More than likely, aid or intervention will not take place without a crisis that places Zimbabwe in the center of the world stage. Zimbabwe is just one former colony of many (in Africa and other parts of the world) that gained independence and left behind the imperialistic economy. Unfortunately, Zimbabwe has stepped out of one economic model and failed to step into the global economy. This is evident in the dramatically decreased FDI and production as well as the lack of intervention from other states. Focus on Former African Colonies World War II left the European powers (with the exception of Portugal) scrambling to leave Africa. As alluded to earlier, colonizing is an expensive business that takes enormous resources and ultimately is profitable for a relatively small number people. Most European colonies in Africa were never as profitable as had been hoped for couldn’t be justified like India and some other colonies. The bad name given to imperialism by Hitler helped accelerate the process in Africa as well as other parts of the world. Due to a lack of economic motivation capable of transcending national boundaries, many former colonies have descended into civil wars and other disputes between nations within the state. As demonstrated with Zimbabwe, this conflict is not necessarily militarily (although this is often the case) carried out and may be something as appalling as withholding food or other basic commodities from a portion of the population. Countless other African states such as Somali, Uganda, Liberia, Sudan, Ethiopia, Rwanda and the Congo have had or continue to have conflicts between nations. Many countries in Africa are lacking a solid economy that isn’t dominated by a single sector such as agriculture.

Sociology :: Sociology Essays

Intro to Sociology When asked about transsexuals, Mildred Brown, author of True Selves quoted that it is a â€Å"dilemma of feeling trapped in the wrong physical gender.† Transsexuality is a phenomenon, which really has not been scientifically examined. Through talk shows such as Jerry Springer, Jenny Jones or the Maury Show, society tends to see a one-sided view on this matter. While watching the Maury Show, â€Å"Man or Woman†, the audience’s reaction to the transsexuals on stage were not of disgust but more of awe. They were in awe that a man could look so much like a woman and how some women showed very masculine features. The guests on this show were inevitably labeled as "freaks" regardless of whether it was verbally spoken or not. The talk show was a brief one. Maury Povich, the host, introduced 12 beautiful women onto the stage. There were two black women, five Hispanic women, and five white women on stage. They all flaunted their flawless bodies. Some were voluptuous; others were more on the thinner side, yet none of them seemed to be any â€Å"different† than any other model/porn star. All the guests on this show were in their mid twenties to their mid thirties. The theme of this show was for the audience to see if they could tell the difference between a man and a woman. Watching the faces in the audience, I noted that each and every one of them were judging all the guests. were 100% men, and some were 100% women. They all stood in a line and for each one, the cross-dressing guests would either prove the audience wrong or right in their judgments. On more than half of the guests, the audience was proven wrong. It was incredible to see some of these guests strut their bodies as the opposite gender. Some of the men looked so much like women that the audience was in complete shock when they revealed their true gender. Now came the interrogation. I call this an interrogation because all these guests are individually put on under the spotlight. Maury Povich digs under their skin to try to expose how â€Å"freakish† they really are. The audience is silent and their faces are wrinkled in confusion to try to understand why the guests are the way they are and who or what made them become like this. The guests sit on their chairs with their head held up high, legs crossed, gloating under all the attention they are receiving.

Ethical Dimension in Religion Essay

Worldview influences the general scope of morality. Morality cannnot sufficiently stand as a separate discipline from religeon. An attempt to separate morality from religeon cannot be entirely successful. Utilitarianism has been the most powerful and ethical system in the modern times exerting influence across the world. It was propagated most eloquently by John Staurt Mill (1806-1873). Its key dimension is to judge moral action by the happiness it produces or the suffering it eliminates while maximizing benefits to the widest possible audience. This idea finds a champion in the scientific humanist who feels that relationships between individuals form the basis for the values an individual should hold. On the other hand, Marxism vouches for collective morality where all actions that lead to the prosperity of the socialist system are considered good and hence morally acceptable. The dominant religions in the world have many similarities pertaining to moral thought and conduct. They include unctions, â€Å"not to steal, not to kill, not to have certain kinds of sexual relations,† (Smart, 2000, p. 107) among others. Most of these rules actually make a tranquil society possible because without them, the society would fall into a state of anarchy, especially if these values are not upheld by a critical mass. It Is also clear that the actual particulars of these standards as expessed in practice are different, driven by different needs and environmental circumstances. Arguably, Islam and Christianity have a wide area of overlap in ethical dimension as expressed both in doctrine and in practice. The first area of considerable ethical compatibility between Christianity and Islam is on the universality of mankind. The central Christian message of love for all humanity places a demand on all practicing Christians to regard human life highly and can explain the vast humanitarian efforts pursued in expression of faith. This explains such sacrifice and devotion to the poor and the sick by well-known persons such as the late mother Teresa of Calcutta. Muslims on the other hand have a religeous duty to give alms to the poor as one of the key pillars of faith, which is an expression of universal brotherhood. Numeous Muslim aid organisations also exist to alleviate poverty and suffering among the disadvantaged in the society. When approached from the standpoint Comparative religious ethics, many similarities are seen in the actual practice of the two faiths. While Christianity does not provide for Holy wars as expressly as Islam, the concept of just wars found its way into Christian thinking and was the key rationalisation behind the crucades. It became an expression of ones faith to pick up arms and fight for the faith during the crusades as compared to the early church position where military service was considered wrong. A comparison of the facets of ethical dimension upheld by Christianity and Islam must include a look at the founders, their philosophy of human relationships, and the duty of man towards creator. Christianity has Christ as its face. He preached love and despite being diety gave himself up to be crucified. He shed nobody’s blood in his entire life but his own blood was shed. As if to immortalize his message prayed for the forgiveness of those who crucified him. He nonetheless taught that he would be coming back, this time not as a graceful redeemer, but as king and Judge. Christianity therefore gets its message of love for all from this picture of Christ. All human life is considered sacred, indeed created in Gods image, and hence in the image of Christ. Christians, in following this pattern are expected to love their enemies and to pray for them. In the area of marriage, a Christian may marry only one wife. Furthermore, it is generally difficult to proceed with divorce as a Christian as Christianity is generally averse to divorce. The Prophet Muhammad is the face of Islam. He was, â€Å"not just a man of God; he was the skillful diplomat, statesman, and general† (Smart, 2000, p. 110). This has influenced Muslim ethics so as to accommodate such concepts as holy war (Jihad) against those who impede the spread of Islam, and it goes further to actually reward those who see to it that such persons are eliminated, complete with insuarance for those who die in the process, being regarded as Holy warriors. Islam advocates for universal brother hood and this is enforced by the giving of alms, which basically raises concern for fellow man. Islam builds on this concept of brotherhood whereby all Muslims consider themselves pilgrims, with none having a superior status before Allah. As Christian cultures have become increasingly westernised, divorce has become more and more acceptable without much conflict with faith. This compares closely with the official Muslim position on divorce. A Christian is required to participate in certain rituals such as baptism and communion as a duty to God, his love for fellow makind notwithstanding. Islam places a similar demand on its adherants where some acts are purely devotional and are considered duty to God, such as pilgrimage to Mecca. It is indeed clear that although the details vary between Islam and Christianity, the practice of the two faiths is strickingly similar and does not differentiate them sufficiently from each other. Bode points out, â€Å"One’s religious being is more than whether or not one is part of some organized religion† (Bode, 1996). References Bode B. A. (2006). Dimensions of Religion: The Ethical Dimension. July 10th 2010, www. quuf. org/sermons/archives/2006-2007/ethical. pdf Smart, N. (2000) . Worldviews, Crosscultural Explorations of Human Beliefs, 3rd Ed,